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It has long been contended that the Indian Constitution of 1950, a document in English. Drawing upon the previously unexplored records of the Supreme Court of India, A People's Constitution upends this narrative. Introduction [PDF]. THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA. PART XIII TRADE,COMMERCE AND INTERCOURSE WITHIN THE TERRITORY OF INDIA Art.( 301-307 ) PART XIV.

Part of a series on
Constitution of India
Preamble
Fundamental Rights
PART
I ∙ II ∙ III ∙ IV ∙ IVA ∙ V ∙ VI ∙ VII
VIII ∙ IX ∙ IXA ∙ IXB ∙ X ∙ XI ∙ XII ∙ XIII ∙ XIV
XV ∙ XVI ∙ XVIA ∙ XVII ∙ XVIII ∙ XIX ∙ XX ∙ XXI
XXII
First ∙ Second ∙ Third ∙ Fourth ∙ Fifth
Sixth ∙ Seventh ∙ Eighth ∙ Ninth
Tenth ∙ Eleventh ∙ Twelfth
I ∙ II ∙ III ∙ IV ∙ V
List ∙ 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 4 ∙ 5 ∙ 6 ∙ 7 ∙ 8 ∙ 9 ∙ 10 ∙ 11 ∙ 12 ∙ 13 ∙ 14 ∙ 15 ∙ 16 ∙ 17 ∙ 18 ∙ 19 ∙ 20 ∙ 21 ∙ 22 ∙ 23 ∙ 24 ∙ 25 ∙ 26 ∙ 27 ∙ 28 ∙ 29 ∙ 30 ∙ 31 ∙ 32 ∙ 33 ∙ 34 ∙ 35 ∙ 36 ∙ 37 ∙ 38 ∙ 39 ∙ 40 ∙ 41 ∙ 42 ∙ 43 ∙ 44 ∙ 45 ∙ 46 ∙ 47 ∙ 48 ∙ 49 ∙ 50 ∙ 51 ∙ 52 ∙ 53 ∙ 54 ∙ 55 ∙ 56 ∙ 57 ∙ 58 ∙ 59 ∙ 60 ∙ 61 ∙ 62 ∙ 63 ∙ 64 ∙ 65 ∙ 66 ∙ 67 ∙ 68 ∙ 69 ∙ 70 ∙ 71 ∙ 72 ∙ 73 ∙ 74 ∙ 75 ∙ 76 ∙ 77 ∙ 78 ∙ 79 ∙ 80 ∙ 81 ∙ 82 ∙ 83 ∙ 84 ∙ 85 ∙ 86 ∙ 87 ∙ 88 ∙ 89 ∙ 90 ∙ 91 ∙ 92 ∙ 93 ∙ 94 ∙ 95 ∙ 96 ∙ 97 ∙ 98 ∙ 99 ∙ 100 ∙ 101 ∙ 102 ∙ 103

as of March 2019, there have been 103[1]amendments to the Constitution of India since it was first enacted in 1950.[2]

There are two types of amendments to the constitution which are governed by article 368.

  • The first type includes amendments that can be effected by Parliament of India by a prescribed ‘special majority’; and
  • The second type of amendments includes those that require, in addition to such 'special majority', ratification by at least one half of the State Legislatures. The second type amendments that are made to the constitution are amendments # 3, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 15, 16, 22, 23, 24, 25, 28, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36, 38, 39, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 51, 54, 61, 62, 70, 73, 74, 75, 79, 84, 88, 95, 99, 101, 102 and 103.[3]

List[edit]

No.AmendmentsEnforced sinceObjectivesPrime MinisterPresident
115, 19, 85, 87, 174, 176, 341, 342,,, 372 and 376.
Insert articles 31A and 31B.
Insert schedule 9.[4]		10th May 1951Added special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally backward classes or for the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes. To fully secure the constitutional validity of zamindari abolition laws and to place reasonable restriction on freedom of speech. A new constitutional device, called Schedule 9 introduced to protect against laws that are contrary to the Constitutionally guaranteed fundamental rights. These laws encroach upon property rights, freedom of speech and equality before law.Jawaharlal NehruRajendra Prasad
2Amend article 81(1)(b).[5]1 May 1953Removed the upper population limit for a parliamentary constituency by amending Article 81(1)(b).
3Amend schedule 7.[6]22 February 1955Re-enacted entry 33 of the Concurrent List in the Seventh Schedule with relation to include trade and commerce in, and the production, supply and distribution of four classes of essential commodities, viz., foodstuffs, including edible oil seeds and oils; cattle fodder, including oilcakes and other concentrates; raw cotton whether ginned or unginned, and cotton seeds; and raw jute.
4Amend articles 31, 35 band 305.
Amend schedule 9.[7]		27 April 1955Restrictions on property rights and inclusion of related bills in Schedule 9 of the constitution.
5Amend article 3.[8]24 December 1955Empowered the President to prescribe a time limit for a State Legislature to convey its views on proposed Central laws relating to the formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing States. Also permitted the President to extend the prescribed limit, and prohibited any such bill from being introduced in Parliament until after the expiry of the prescribed or extended period.
6Amend articles 269 and 286.
Amend schedule 7.[9]		11 September 1956Amend the Union and State Lists with respect to raising of taxes.
7Amend articles 1, 3, 49, 80, 81, 82, 131, 153, 158, 168, 170, 171, 216, 217, 220, 222, 224, 230, 231 and 232.
Insert articles 258A, 290A, 298, 350A, 350B, 371, 372A and 378A.
Amend part 8.
Amend schedules 1, 2, 4 and 7.[10]		1 November 1956Reorganization of states on linguistic lines, abolition of Class A, B, C, D states and introduction of Union Territories.
8Amend article 334.[11]5 January 1960Extended the period of reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and Anglo-Indians in the Lok Sabha and the State Legislative Assemblies till 1970.
9Amend schedule 1.[12]28 December 1960Minor adjustments to territory of Indian Union consequent to agreement with Pakistan for settlement of disputes by demarcation of border villages, etc.
10Amend article 240.
Amend schedule 1.[13]		11 August 1961Incorporation of Dadra, Nagar and Haveli as a Union Territory, consequent to acquisition from Portugal.
11Amend articles 66 and 71.[14]19 December 1961Election of Vice President by Electoral College consisting of members of both Houses of Parliament, instead of election by a Joint Sitting of Parliament. Indemnify the President and Vice President Election procedure from challenge on grounds of existence of any vacancies in the electoral college.
12Amend article 240.
Amend schedule 1.[15]		20 December 1961Incorporation of Goa, Daman and Diu as a Union Territory, consequent to acquisition from Portugal.
13Amend article 170.
Insert new article 371A.[16]		1 December 1963Formation of State of Nagaland, with special protection under Article 371A.Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
14Amend articles 81 and 240.
Insert article 239A.
Amend schedules 1 and 4.[17]		28 December 1962Incorporation of Pondicherry into the Union of India and creation of Legislative Assemblies for Himachal Pradesh, Tripura, Manipur and Goa.
15Amend articles 124, 128, 217, 222, 224, 226, 297, 311 and 316.
Insert article 224A.
Amend schedule 7.[18]		5 October 1963Raise retirement age of High court judges from 60 to 62 and other minor amendments for rationalizing interpretation of rules regarding judges etc.
16Amend articles 19, 84 and 173.
Amend schedule 3.[19]		5 October 1963Make it obligatory for seekers of public office to swear their allegiance to the Indian Republic and prescribe the various obligtory templates.
17Amend article 31A.
Amend schedule 9.[20]		20 June 1964To secure the constitutional validity of acquisition of Estates and place land acquisition laws in Schedule 9 of the constitution.
18Amend article 3.[21]27 August 1966Technical Amendment to include Union Territories in Article 3 and hence permit reorganisation of Union Territories.Lal Bahadur Shastri
19Amend article 324.[22]11 December 1966Abolish Election Tribunals and enable trial of election petitions by regular High Courts.
20Insert article 233A.[23]22 December 1966Indemnify & validate judgments, decrees, orders and sentences passed by judges and to validate the appointment, posting, promotion and transfer of judges barring a few who were not eligible for appointment under article 233. Amendment needed to overcome the effect of judgment invalidating appointments of certain judges in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
21Amend schedule 8.[24]10 April 1967Include Sindhi as an Official Language.Indira Gandhi
22Amend article 275.
Insert articles 244A and 371B.[25]		25 September 1969Provision to form Autonomous states within the State of Assam.V. V. Giri
23Amend articles 330, 332, 333 and 334.[26]23 January 1970Discontinued reservation of seats for the Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, both in the Lok Sabha and the State Legislative Assembly and stipulated that not more than one Anglo-Indian could be nominated by the Governor to any State Legislative Assembly. Extend reservation for SC/ST and Anglo Indian members in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for another ten years, i.e. up to 1980.
24Amend articles 13 and 368.[27]5 November 1971Enable parliament to dilute fundamental rights through amendments to the constitution.
25Amend article 31.
Insert article 31C.[28]		20 April 1972Restrict property rights and compensation in case the state takes over private property. However, the Supreme Court quashed a part of Article 31C, to the extent it took away the power of judicial review. This was done in the landmark case of Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973) 4 SCC 225 which for the first time enunciated the Basic structure doctrine.
26Amend article 366.
Insert article 363A.
Remove articles 291 and 362.[29]		28 December 1971Abolition of privy purse paid to former rulers of princely states which were incorporated into the Indian Republic.
27Amend articles 239A and 240.
Insert articles 239B and 371C.[30]		15 February 1972Reorganization of Mizoram into a Union Territory with a legislature and council of ministers.
28Insert article 312A.
Remove article 314.[31]		29 August 1972Rationalize Civil Service rules to make it uniform across those appointed prior to Independence and post independence.
29Amend schedule 9.[32]9 June 1972Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
30Amend article 133.[33]27 February 1973Change the basis for appeals in Supreme Court of India in case of Civil Suits from value criteria to one involving substantial question of law.
31Amend articles 81, 330 and 332.[34]17 October 1973Increase size of Parliament from 525 to 545 seats. Increased seats going to the new states formed in North East India and minor adjustment consequent to 1971 Delimitation exercise.
32Amend article 371.
Insert articles 371D and 371E.
Amend schedule 7.[35]		1 July 1974Protection of regional rights in Telangana and Andhra regions of State of Andhra Pradesh.
33Amend articles 101 and 190.[36]19 May 1974Prescribes procedure for resignation by members of parliament and state legislatures and the procedure for verification and acceptance of resignation by house speaker.
34Amend schedule 9.[37]7 September 1974Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed
35Amend articles 80 and 81.
Insert article 2A.
Insert schedule 10.[38]		1 March 1975Terms and Conditions for the Incorporation of Sikkim into the Union of India.
36Amend articles 80 and 81.
Insert article 371F.
Remove article 2A.
Amend schedules 1 and 4.
Remove schedule 10.[39]		26 April 1975Formation of Sikkim as a State within the Indian Union.
37Amend articles 239A and 240.[40]3 May 1975Formation of Arunachal Pradesh legislative assembly.
38Amend articles 123, 213, 239B, 352, 356, 359 and 360.[41]1 June 1975Enhances the powers of President and Governors to pass ordinances.
39Amend articles 71 and 329.
Insert article 329A.
Amend schedule 9.[42]		10 August 1975Amendment designed to negate the judgement of Allahabad High Court invalidating Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's election to parliament. Amendment placed restrictions on judicial scrutiny of post of Prime Minister. The amendment was introduced and passed in the Lok Sabha on August 7, 1975 and again introduced and passed in the Rajya Sabha on August 8, 1975. As many as 17 State Assemblies, summoned on Saturday, August 9 ratified this amendment and President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmad gave his assent on Sunday, August 10 and the civil servants issued gazette notification on Sunday, August 10, 1975. As a consequence of this amendment to the Constitution of India, Supreme Court of India's scheduled hearing on August 11, 1975 of Petition challenging Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's election became infructuous.[43]

Later however, Article 329A was struck down by the Supreme Court in case of Indira Nehru Gandhi vs Shri Raj Narain 1976 (2) SCR 347, for being in violation of basic structure.

40Amend article 297.
Amend schedule 9.[44]		27 May 1976Enable Parliament to make laws with respect to Exclusive Economic Zone and vest the mineral wealth with Union of India.

Place land reform & other acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.

41Amend article 316.[45]7 September 1976Raise Retirement Age Limit of Chairmen and Members of Joint Public Service Commissions and State Public Service Commissions from sixty to sixty two.
42Amend articles 31, 31C, 39, 55, 74, 77, 81, 82, 83, 100, 102, 103, 105, 118, 145, 150, 166, 170, 172, 189, 191, 192, 194, 208, 217, 225, 226, 227, 228, 311, 312, 330, 352, 353, 356, 357, 358, 359, 366, 368 and 371F.
Insert articles 31D, 32A, 39A, 43A, 48A, 131A, 139A, 144A, 226A, 228A and 257A.
Insert parts 4A and 14A.
Amend schedule 7.[46]		2 November 1976Amendment passed during internal emergency by Indira Gandhi. Provides for curtailment of fundamental rights, imposes fundamental duties and changes to the basic structure of the constitution by making India a 'Socialist Secular' Republic.

However, the Supreme Court, in Minerva Mills v. Union of India, quashed the amendments to Articles 31C and 368 as it was in contravention with the basic structure of the Constitution.

43Amend articles 145, 226, 228 and 366.
Remove articles 31D, 32A, 131A, 144A, 226A and 228A.[47]		13 April 1978Amendment passed after revocation of internal emergency in the Country. Repeals some of the more 'Anti-Freedom' amendments enacted through Amendment Bill 42.Morarji DesaiNeelam Sanjiva Reddy
44Amend articles 19, 22, 30, 31A, 31C, 38, 71, 74, 77, 83, 103, 105, 123, 132, 133, 134, 139A, 150, 166, 172, 192, 194, 213, 217, 225, 226, 227, 239B, 329, 352, 356, 358, 359, 360 and 371F.
Insert articles 134A and 361A.
Remove articles 31, 257A and 329A.
Amend part 12.
Amend schedule 9.[48]		6 September 1978Amendment passed after revocation of internal emergency in the Country. Provides for human rights safeguards and mechanisms to prevent abuse of executive and legislative authority. Annuls some Amendments enacted in Amendment Bill 42.
45Amend article 334.[49]25 January 1980Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 1990.Indira Gandhi
46Amend articles 269, 286 and 366.
Amend schedule 7.[50]		2 February 1983Amendment to negate judicial pronouncements on scope and applicability on Sales Tax.Zail Singh
47Amend schedule 9.[51]26 August 1984Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
48Amend article 356.[52]26 August 1984Article 356 amended to permit President's rule up to two years in the state of Punjab.
49Amend article 244.
Amend schedules 5 and 6.[53]		11 September 1984Recognize Tripura as a Tribal State and enable the creation of a Tripura Tribal Areas Autonomous District Council.
50Amend article 33.[54]11 September 1984Technical Amendment to curtailment of Fundamental Rights as per Part III as prescribed in Article 33 to cover Security Personnel protecting property and communication infrastructure.
51Amend articles 330 and 332.[55]29 April 1984Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh in Loksabha, similarly for Meghalaya and Arunachal in their Legislative Assemblies.
52Amend articles 101, 102, 190 and 191.
Insert schedule 10.[56]		15 February 1985Anti Defection Law - Provide disqualification of members from parliament and assembly in case of defection from one party to other. However, parts of the 10th Schedule to the Constitution of India was struck down by the Supreme Court in the case of Kihoto Hollohan v. Zachillhu 1992 SCR (1) 686, for being in contravention with Article 368 of the Constitution.Rajiv Gandhi
53Insert article 371G.[57]20 February 1986Special provision with respect to the State of Mizoram.
54Amend articles 125 and 221.
Amend schedule 2.[58]		1 April 1986Increase the salary of Chief Justice of India & other Judges and to provide for determining future increases without the need for constitutional amendment.
55Insert article 371H.[59]20 February 1987Special powers to Governor consequent to formation of state of Arunachal Pradesh.
56Insert article 371I.[60]30 May 1987Transition provision to enable formation of state of Goa.
57Amend article 332.[61]21 September 1987Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh Legislative Assemblies.R. Venkataraman
58Insert article 394A.
Amend part 22.[62]		9 December 1987Provision to publish authentic Hindi translation of constitution as on date and provision to publish authentic Hindi translation of future amendments.
59Amend article 356.
Insert article 359A.[63]		30 March 1988Article 356 amended to permit President's rule up to three years in the state of Punjab, Articles 352 and Article 359A amended to permit imposing emergency in state of Punjab or in specific districts of the state of Punjab.
60Amend article 276.[64]20 December 1988Profession Tax increased from a minimum of Rs. 250/- to a maximum of Rs. 2500/-.
61Amend article 326.[65]28 March 1989Reduce age for voting rights from 21 to 18.
62Amend article 334.[66]20 December 1989Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2000.V. P. Singh
63Amend article 356.
Remove article 359A.[67]		6 January 1990Emergency powers applicable to State of Punjab, accorded in Article 359A as per amendment 59 repealed.
64Amend article 356.[68]16 April 1990Article 356 amended to permit President's rule up to three years and six months in the state of Punjab.
65Amend article 338.[69]12 March 1990National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes formed and its statutory powers specified in The Constitution.
66Amend schedule 9.[70]7 June 1990Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
67Amend article 356.[71]4 October 1990Article 356 amended to permit President's rule up to four years in the state of Punjab.
68Amend article 356.[72]12 March 1991Article 356 amended to permit President's rule up to five years in the state of Punjab.
69Insert articles 239AA and 239AB.[73]1 February 1990To provide for a legislative assembly and council of ministers for Federal National Capital of Delhi. Delhi continues to be a Union Territory.P. V. Narasimha Rao
70Amend articles 54 and 239AA.[74]21 December 1991Include National Capital of Delhi and Union Territory of Pondicherry in electoral college for Presidential Election.
71Amend schedule 8.[75]31 August 1992Include Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali as Official Languages.Shankar Dayal Sharma
72Amend article 332.[76]5 December 1992Provide reservation to Scheduled Tribes in Tripura State Legislative Assembly.
73Insert part 9.[77]24 April 1992Statutory provisions for Panchyat Raj as third level of administration in villages.
74Insert part 9A, amend article 280.[78]1 June 1992Statutory provisions for Local Administrative bodies as third level of administration in urban areas such as towns and cities.
75Amend article 323B.[79]15 May 1994Provisions for setting up Rent Control Tribunals.
76Amend schedule 9.[80]31 August 1994Enable continuance of 69% reservation in Tamil Nadu by including the relevant Tamil Nadu Act under 9th Schedule of the constitution.
77Amend article 16.[81]17 June 1995A technical amendment to protect reservation to SC/ST Employees in promotions.
78Amend schedule 9.[82]30 August 1995Place land reform acts and amendments to these act under Schedule 9 of the constitution.
79Amend article 334.[83]25 January 2000Extend reservation for SC / ST and nomination of Anglo Indian members in Parliament and State Assemblies for another ten years i.e. up to 2010.Atal Bihari VajpayeeK. R. Narayanan
80Amend articles 269 and 270.
Remove article 272.[84]		9 June 2000Implement Tenth Finance Commission recommendation to simplify the tax structures by pooling and sharing all taxes between states and The Centre.
81Amend article 16.[85]9 June 2000Protect SC / ST reservation in filling backlog of vacancies.
82Amend article 335.[86]8 September 2000Permit relaxation of qualifying marks and other criteria in reservation in promotion for SC / ST candidates.
83Amend article 243M.[87]8 September 2000Exempt Arunachal Pradesh from reservation for Scheduled Castes in Panchayati Raj institutions.
84Amend articles 55, 81, 82, 170, 330 and 332.[88]21 February 2002Extend the usage of 1971 national census population figures for statewise distribution of parliamentary seats.
85Amend article 16.[89]4 January 2002A technical amendment to protect Consequential seniority in case of promotions of SC/ST Employees.
86Amend articles 45 and 51A.
Insert article 21A.[90]		12 December 2002Provides Right to Education until the age of fourteen and Early childhood care until the age of six.A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
87Amend articles 81, 82, 170 and 330.[91]22 June 2003Extend the usage of 2001 national census population figures for statewise distribution of parliamentary seats.
88Amend article 270.
Insert article 268A.
Amend schedule 7.[92]		15 January 2004To extend statutory cover for levy and utilization of Service Tax.
89Amend article 338.
Insert article 338A.[93]		28 September 2003The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes was bifurcated into The National Commission for Scheduled Castes and The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.
90Amend article 332.[94]28 September 2003Reservation in Assam Assembly relating to Bodoland Territory Area.
91Amend articles 75 and 164.
Insert article 361B.
Amend schedule 10.[95]		1 January 2004Restrict the size of council of ministers to 15% of legislative members & to strengthen Anti Defection laws.
92Amend schedule 8.[96]7 January 2004Include Bodo, Dogri, Santali and Maithali as official languages.
93Amend article 15.[97]20 January 2006To enable provision of reservation (27%) for other backward classes(OBC) in government as well as private educational institutions.Manmohan Singh
94Amend article 164.[98]12 June 2006To provide for a Minister of Tribal Welfare in newly created Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh States including Madhya Pradesh, Orissa.
95Amend article 334.[99]25 January 2010To extend the reservation of seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha and states assemblies from Sixty years to Seventy years.Pratibha Patil
96Amend schedule 8.[100]23 September 2011Substituted 'Odia' for 'Oriya'.
97Amend Art 19 and added Part IXB.[101]12 January 2012Added the words 'or co-operative societies' after the word 'or unions' in Article 19(l)(c) and insertion of article 43B i.e., Promotion of Co-operative Societies and added Part-IXB i.e., The Co-operative Societies.

The amendment objective is to encourage economic activities of cooperatives which in turn help progress of rural India. It is expected to not only ensure autonomous and democratic functioning of cooperatives, but also the accountability of the management to the members and other stakeholders.[102]

98To insert Article 371J in the Constitution[103]2 January 2013To empower the Governor of Karnataka to take steps to develop the Hyderabad-Karnataka Region.[103]Pranab Mukherjee
99Insertion of new articles 124A, 124B and 124C. Amendments to Articles 127, 128, 217, 222, 224A, 231.[104]13 April 2015[105]Formation of a National Judicial Appointments Commission. 16 State assemblies out of 29 States including Goa, Rajasthan, Tripura, Gujarat and Telangana ratified the Central Legislation, enabling the President of India to give assent to the bill.[106] The amendment was struck down by the Supreme Court on 16 October 2015.Narendra Modi
100Amendment of First Schedule to Constitution[107]1 August 2015Exchange of certain enclave territories with Bangladesh and conferment of citizenship rights to residents of enclaves consequent to signing of Land Boundary Agreement (LBA) Treaty between India and Bangladesh.
101Addition of articles 246A, 269A, 279A. Deletion of Article 268A.

Amendment of articles 248, 249, 250, 268, 269, 270, 271, 286, 366, 368, Sixth Schedule, Seventh Schedule.[108]

1 July 2017Introduced the Goods and Services Tax.
102Addition of articles 338B, 342A.

Modification of articles 338, 366.[109]

11 August 2018Constitutional status to National Commission for Backward ClassesRam Nath Kovind
103Amendment to Article 15 & 16[110]12 January 2019A maximum of 10% Reservation for Economically Weaker Sections of citizens of classes other than the classes mentioned in clauses (4) and (5) of Article 15, i.e. Classes other than socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
India

See also[edit]


References[edit]

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External links[edit]


Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_amendments_of_the_Constitution_of_India&oldid=897652084'
Constitution of India
Original titleभारतीय संविधान(IAST:Bhāratīya Saṃvidhāna)[a]
JurisdictionIndia
Ratified26 November 1949; 69 years ago
Date effective26 January 1950; 69 years ago
SystemConstitutional parliamentary socialist secular republic
BranchesThree (executive, legislature and judiciary)
ExecutivePrime minister-led cabinet responsible to the lower house of the parliament
JudiciarySupreme court, high courts and district courts
FederalismUnitary (Quasi-federal)
Electoral collegeYes, for presidential and vice-presidential elections
Entrenchments2
Amendments103
Last amended12 January 2019 (103rd)
LocationParliament House, New Delhi, India
Author(s)B. R. Ambedkar and the drafting committee of the Constituent Assembly of India
Signatories284 members of the Constituent Assembly
SupersedesGovernment of India Act 1935
Indian Independence Act 1947
Part of a series on
Constitution of India
Preamble
Fundamental Rights
PART
I ∙ II ∙ III ∙ IV ∙ IVA ∙ V ∙ VI ∙ VII
VIII ∙ IX ∙ IXA ∙ IXB ∙ X ∙ XI ∙ XII ∙ XIII ∙ XIV
XV ∙ XVI ∙ XVIA ∙ XVII ∙ XVIII ∙ XIX ∙ XX ∙ XXI
XXII
First ∙ Second ∙ Third ∙ Fourth ∙ Fifth
Sixth ∙ Seventh ∙ Eighth ∙ Ninth
Tenth ∙ Eleventh ∙ Twelfth
I ∙ II ∙ III ∙ IV ∙ V
List ∙ 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 4 ∙ 5 ∙ 6 ∙ 7 ∙ 8 ∙ 9 ∙ 10 ∙ 11 ∙ 12 ∙ 13 ∙ 14 ∙ 15 ∙ 16 ∙ 17 ∙ 18 ∙ 19 ∙ 20 ∙ 21 ∙ 22 ∙ 23 ∙ 24 ∙ 25 ∙ 26 ∙ 27 ∙ 28 ∙ 29 ∙ 30 ∙ 31 ∙ 32 ∙ 33 ∙ 34 ∙ 35 ∙ 36 ∙ 37 ∙ 38 ∙ 39 ∙ 40 ∙ 41 ∙ 42 ∙ 43 ∙ 44 ∙ 45 ∙ 46 ∙ 47 ∙ 48 ∙ 49 ∙ 50 ∙ 51 ∙ 52 ∙ 53 ∙ 54 ∙ 55 ∙ 56 ∙ 57 ∙ 58 ∙ 59 ∙ 60 ∙ 61 ∙ 62 ∙ 63 ∙ 64 ∙ 65 ∙ 66 ∙ 67 ∙ 68 ∙ 69 ∙ 70 ∙ 71 ∙ 72 ∙ 73 ∙ 74 ∙ 75 ∙ 76 ∙ 77 ∙ 78 ∙ 79 ∙ 80 ∙ 81 ∙ 82 ∙ 83 ∙ 84 ∙ 85 ∙ 86 ∙ 87 ∙ 88 ∙ 89 ∙ 90 ∙ 91 ∙ 92 ∙ 93 ∙ 94 ∙ 95 ∙ 96 ∙ 97 ∙ 98 ∙ 99 ∙ 100 ∙ 101 ∙ 102 ∙ 103

The Constitution of India (IAST: Bhāratīya Saṃvidhāna) is the supreme law of India.[1][2] The document lays down the framework demarcating fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens. It is the longest written constitution of any country on earth.[b][3][4][5]B. R. Ambedkar, chairman of the drafting committee, is widely considered to be its chief architect.[6]

It imparts constitutional supremacy (not parliamentary supremacy, since it was created by a constituent assembly rather than Parliament) and was adopted by its people with a declaration in its preamble.[7][full citation needed] Parliament cannot override the constitution.

B. R. Ambedkar and Constitution of India on a 2015 postage stamp of India

It was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26 November 1949 and became effective on 26 January 1950.[8] The constitution replaced the Government of India Act, 1935 as the country's fundamental governing document, and the Dominion of India became the Republic of India. To ensure constitutional autochthony, its framers repealed prior acts of the British parliament in Article 395.[9] India celebrates its constitution on 26 January as Republic Day.[10]

The constitution declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular,[11]democraticrepublic, assuring its citizens justice, equality and liberty, and endeavours to promote fraternity.[12] The original 1950 constitution is preserved in a helium-filled case at the Parliament House in New Delhi. The words 'secular' and 'socialist' were added to the preamble in 1976 during the emergency.[13]

  • 1Background
  • 2Constituent Assembly
  • 4Structure
  • 6Constitution and legislature
  • 7Constitution and judiciary
  • 10Notes

Background

Babasaheb Ambedkar, chairman of the drafting committee, presenting the final draft of the Indian constitution to Constituent Assembly president Rajendra Prasad on 25 November 1949

Most of the Indian subcontinent was under British rule from 1857 to 1947. From 1947 to 1950, the same legislation continued to be implemented as India was a dominion of Britain for these three years, as each princely state was convinced by Sardar Patel and V.P.Menon to sign the articles of integration with India, and the British government continued to be responsible for the external security of the country.[14] Thus, the constitution of India repealed the Indian Independence Act 1947 and Government of India Act, 1935 when it became effective on 26 January 1950. India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown and became a sovereign democratic republic with the constitution. Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392, 393, and 394 of the constitution came into force on 26 November 1949, and the remaining articles became effective on 26 January 1950.[15]

Previous legislation

The constitution was drawn from a number of sources. Mindful of India's needs and conditions, its framers borrowed features of previous legislation such as the Government of India Act 1858, the Indian Councils Acts of 1861, 1892 and 1909, the Government of India Acts of 1919 and 1935, and the Indian Independence Act 1947. The latter, which led to the creation of India and Pakistan, divided the former Constituent Assembly in two. Each new assembly had sovereign power to draft and enact a new constitution for the separate states.[16]

Constituent Assembly

1950 Constituent Assembly meeting

The constitution was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by elected members of the provincial assemblies.[17] The 389-member assembly (reduced to 299 after the partition of India) took almost three years to draft the constitution holding eleven sessions over a 165-day period.[3][16]

B. R. Ambedkar was a wise constitutional expert, he had studied the constitutions of about 60 countries. Ambedkar is recognised as the 'Father of the Constitution of India'.[18][19] In the constitution assembly, a member of the drafting committee, T. T. Krishnamachari said:

'Mr. President, Sir, I am one of those in the House who have listened to Dr. Ambedkar very carefully. I am aware of the amount of work and enthusiasm that he has brought to bear on the work of drafting this Constitution. At the same time, I do realise that that amount of attention that was necessary for the purpose of drafting a constitution so important to us at this moment has not been given to it by the Drafting Committee. The House is perhaps aware that of the seven members nominated by you, one had resigned from the House and was replaced. One died and was not replaced. One was away in America and his place was not filled up and another person was engaged in State affairs, and there was a void to that extent. One or two people were far away from Delhi and perhaps reasons of health did not permit them to attend. So it happened ultimately that the burden of drafting this constitution fell on Dr. Ambedkar and I have no doubt that we are grateful to him for having achieved this task in a manner which is undoubtedly commendable.'[20][21]

Time Line of Formation of 'The Constitution of India'

  • 6 December 1946:Formation of the Constitution Assembly. (in accordance with French practice.)
  • 9 December 1946:The first meeting was held in the constitution hall (now the Central Hall of Parliament House).1st person to address - J.B. kripalani. Temporary president Appointed - Sachchidanand sinha. (Demanding a separate state, the Muslim League boycotted the meeting.)
  • 11 December 1946:President Appointed - Rajendra Prasad, vice-Chairman H. C. Mukherjee and constitutional legal adviser B. N. Rau(initially 389 members in total, which declined to 299 after partition. out of 389 - 292 were from govt. province, 4 from chief commissioner province and 93 from princely states)
  • 13 December 1946:An 'Objective Resolution' was presented by Jawaharlal Nehru, laying down the underlying principles of the constitution. which later became the Preamble of the constitution.
  • 22 January 1947: Objective resolution unanimously adopted.
  • 22 July 1947:National flag adopted.
  • 15 August 1947: Achieved independence. India Split into Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan.
  • 29 August 1947:Drafting Committee appointed with Dr. B. R. Ambedkar as the Chairman.other 6 members of committee was : Munshi, Muhammed Sadulla, Allad Krishna swami ayyar, Gopala swami Ayyankar, Khaitan, Mitter
  • 16 July 1948: Along with Harendra Coomar MookerjeeV. T. Krishnamachari was also elected as second vice-president of Constituent Assembly.
  • 26 November 1949: 'Constitution of India' passed and adopted by the assembly.
  • 24 January 1950: Last meeting of Constituent Assembly. 'constitution of india' all signed and accepted. (with 395 Articles, 8 Schedules, 22 Parts)
  • 26 January 1950: 'Constitution of India' came in to force. (It Took 2 Years, 11 Months, 18 Days - at a total expenditure of ₹6.4 million to finish)
  • G. V. Mavlankar was the first speaker when meeting the assembly of Lok sabha, after turning republic.


Pdf

Membership

B. R. Ambedkar, Sanjay Phakey, Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Rajendra Prasad, Vallabhbhai Patel, Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi, Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar, Sandipkumar Patel, Abul Kalam Azad, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Nalini Ranjan Ghosh, and Balwantrai Mehta were key figures in the assembly,[3][16] which had over 30 representatives of the scheduled classes. Frank Anthony represented the Anglo-Indian community,[3] and the Parsis were represented by H. P. Modi.[3]Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a Christian assembly vice-president, chaired the minorities committee and represented non-Anglo-Indian Christians.[3] Ari Bahadur Gurung represented the Gorkha community.[3] Judges, such as Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, Benegal Narsing Rau, K. M. Munshi and Ganesh Mavlankar were members of the assembly.[3] Female members included Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Durgabai Deshmukh, Amrit Kaur and Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit.[3]

The first, two-day president of the assembly was Sachchidananda Sinha; Rajendra Prasad was later elected president.[16][17] It met for the first time on 9 December 1946.[3][17][13]

Drafting

Benegal Narsing Rau, a civil servant who became the first Indian judge in the International Court of Justice and was president of the United Nations Security Council, was appointed as the assembly's constitutional adviser in 1946.[22] Responsible for the constitution's general structure, Rau prepared its initial draft in February 1948.[22][23][24]

At 14 August 1947 meeting of the assembly, committees were proposed.[17] Rau's draft was considered, debated and amended by the eight-person drafting committee, which was appointed on 29 August 1947 with B. R. Ambedkar as chair.[3][13] A revised draft constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the assembly on 4 November 1947.[13]

While deliberating the revised draft constitution, the assembly moved, discussed and disposed off 2,473 amendments out of a total of 7,635.[16][25] Before adopting the constitution, the assembly held eleven sessions in 165 days.[3][16] On 26 November 1949 it adopted the constitution,[3][16][13][24][26] which was signed by 284 members.[3][16][13][24][26] The day is celebrated as National Law Day,[3][27] or Constitution Day.[3][28] The day was chosen to spread the importance of the constitution and to spread thoughts and ideas of Ambedkar.[29]

Jawaharlal Nehru signing the constitution

The assembly's final session convened on 24 January 1950. Each member signed two copies of the constitution, one in Hindi and the other in English.[3][16][24] The original constitution is hand-written, with each page decorated by artists from Shantiniketan including Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and Nandalal Bose.[13][24] Its calligrapher was Prem Behari Narain Raizada.[13] The constitution was published in Dehradun and photolithographed by the Survey of India. Production of the original constitution took nearly five years. Two days later, on 26 January 1950, it became the law of India.[13][30] The estimated cost of the Constituent Assembly was ₹6.3 crore (₹63 million).[16] The constitution has had more than 100 amendments since it was enacted.[31]

Influence of other constitutions

  • United Kingdom
    • Parliamentary government[3]
    • Concept of single citizenship[3]
    • The legislative speaker and their role
    • Legislative procedure
  • United States[32]
    • Bill of Rights[3][13]
    • Federal structure of government[3]
    • Electoral College
    • Independent judiciary and separation of powers
    • Judicial review
    • President as commander-in-chief of the armed forces
    • Equal protection under law
  • Ireland
    • Directive principles of state policy[13]
  • Australia
    • Freedom of trade between states[16]
    • National legislative power to implement treaties, even on matters outside normal federal jurisdiction
    • Concurrent List[33]
    • Preamble terminology
  • France
    • Ideals of liberté, égalité, fraternité[3][13]
  • Canada
    • Quasi-federal government — a federal system with a strong central government[16]
    • Distribution of powers between the central and state governments[3][16]
    • Residual powers, retained by the central government[citation needed]
  • Soviet Union
    • Fundamental Duties under article 51-A[3]
    • Mandated planning commission to oversee economic development[3]
  • Other constitutions
    • The emergency provision under article 356 (from the Weimar Constitution)[13]
    • Amending the constitution (from South Africa)
    • Due process (from Japan)

Structure

The Indian constitution is the world's longest for a sovereign nation.[b][3][4][5] At its enactment, it had 395 articles in 22 parts and 8 schedules.[16] At about 145,000 words, it is the second-longest active constitution – after the Constitution of Alabama – in the world.[34]

The constitution has a preamble and 448 articles,[c][13] which are grouped into 25 parts.[d][13] With 12 schedules[e][13] and five appendices,[13][35] it has been amended 103 times; the latest amendment became effective on 14 January 2019.[36]

Parts

The constitution's articles are grouped into the following parts:

  • Preamble,[37] with the words 'socialist' and 'secular', and 'integrity' added in 1976 by the 42nd amendment[38][39]
  • Part I[40] – States and union territories
  • Part II[41] – Citizenship
  • Part III – Fundamental Rights
  • Part IV[42] – Directive Principles of State Policy
  • Part IVA – Fundamental Duties
  • Part V[43] – The union
  • Part VI[44] – The states
  • Part VII[45] – States in the B part of the first schedule (repealed)
  • Part VIII[46] – Union territories
  • Part IX[47] – Panchayats
  • Part IXA[48] – Municipalities
  • Part IXB – Co-operative societies[49]
  • Part X – Scheduled and tribal areas
  • Part XI – Relations between the union and the states
  • Part XII – Finance, property, contracts and suits
  • Part XIII – Trade and commerce within India
  • Part XIV – Services under the union and states
  • Part XIVA – Tribunals
  • Part XV – Elections
  • Part XVI – Special provisions relating to certain classes
  • Part XVII – Languages
  • Part XVIII – Emergency provisions
  • Part XIX – Miscellaneous
  • Part XX – Amending the constitution
  • Part XXI – Temporary, transitional and special provisions
  • Part XXII – Short title, date of commencement, authoritative text in Hindi and repeals

Schedules

Schedules are lists in the constitution which categorise and tabulate bureaucratic activity and government policy.

  • First Schedule (Articles 1 and 4) – Lists India's states and territories, changes in their borders and the laws used to make that change.
  • Second Schedule (Articles 59(3), 65(3), 75(6), 97, 125, 148(3), 158(3), 164(5), 186 and 221) – Lists the salaries of public officials, judges, and the Comptroller and Auditor General.
  • Third Schedule (Articles 75(4), 99, 124(6), 148(2), 164(3), 188 and 219) – Forms of oaths – Lists the oaths of office for elected officials and judges.
  • Fourth Schedule (Articles 4(1) and 80(2)) – Details the allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha (upper house of Parliament) by state or union territory.
  • Fifth Schedule (Article 244(1)) – Provides for the administration and control of Scheduled Areas[f] and Scheduled Tribes[g] (areas and tribes requiring special protection).
  • Sixth Schedule (Articles 244(2) and 275(1)) – Provisions made for the administration of tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram.
  • Seventh Schedule (Article 246) — Central government, state, and concurrent lists of responsibilities
  • Eighth Schedule (Articles 344(1) and 351) – Official languages
  • Ninth Schedule (Article 31-B) – Validation of certain acts and regulations[h]
  • Tenth Schedule (Articles 102(2) and 191(2)) – Anti-defection provisions for members of Parliament and state legislatures.
  • Eleventh Schedule (Article 243-G) —Panchayat Raj (rural local government)
  • Twelfth Schedule (Article 243-W) — Municipalities (urban local government)

Appendices

  • Appendix I – The Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order, 1954
  • Appendix II – Re-statement, referring to the constitution's present text, of exceptions and modifications applicable to the state of Jammu and Kashmir
  • Appendix III – Extracts from the Constitution (Forty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1978
  • Appendix IV – The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002
  • Appendix V – The Constitution (Eighty-eighth Amendment) Act, 2003

Constitution and government

The executive, legislative and judicial branches of government receive their power from the constitution and are bound by it.[50] With the aid of its constitution, India is governed by a parliamentary system of government with the executive directly accountable to the legislature. The President of India is head of the executive branch, under Articles 52 and 53, with the duty of preserving, protecting and defending the constitution and the law under Article 60. Article 74 provides for a Prime Minister as head of the Council of Ministers, which aids and advises the president in the performance of their constitutional duties. The council is answerable to the lower house under Article 75(3).

The constitution is considered federal in nature, and unitary in spirit. It has features of a federation (a codified, supreme constitution, a three-tier governmental structure [central, state and local], division of powers, bicameralism and an independent judiciary) and unitary features such as a single constitution, single citizenship, an integrated judiciary, a flexible constitution, a strong central government, appointment of state governors by the central government, All India Services (the IAS, IFS and IPS) and emergency provisions. This unique combination makes it quasi-federal in form.[51]

Each state and union territory has its own government. Analogous to the president and prime minister, each has a governor or (in union territories) a lieutenant governor and a chief minister. Article 356 permits the president to dismiss a state government and assume direct authority if a situation arises in which state government cannot be conducted in accordance with constitution. This power, known as president's rule, was abused as state governments came to be dismissed on flimsy grounds for political reasons. After the S. R. Bommai v. Union of India decision,[52][53] such a course of action is more difficult since the courts have asserted their right of review.[54]

The 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts introduced the system of panchayati raj in rural areas and Nagar Palikas in urban areas.[13]Article 370 gives special status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

Constitution and legislature

Amendments

Amendments are additions, variations or repeal of any part of the constitution by Parliament.[55] The procedure is detailed in Article 368. An amendment bill must be passed by each house of Parliament by a two-thirds majority of its total membership when at least two-thirds are present and vote. Certain amendments pertaining to the constitution's federal nature must also be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. Unlike ordinary bills in accordance with Article 245 (except for money bills), there is no provision for a joint session of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha to pass a constitutional amendment. During a parliamentary recess, the president cannot promulgate ordinances under his legislative powers under Article 123, Chapter III. Deemed amendments to the constitution which can be passed under the legislative powers of parliament were invalidated by Article 368(1) in the Twenty-fourth Amendment.[55]

By July 2018, 124 amendment bills had been presented in Parliament; of these, 103 became Amendment Acts.[56] Despite the supermajority requirement for amendments to pass, the Indian constitution is the world's most frequently-amended national governing document.[57] The constitution is so specific in spelling out government powers that many amendments address issues dealt with by statute in other democracies.

In 2000, the Justice Manepalli Narayana Rao Venkatachaliah Commission was formed to examine a constitutional update. The government of India establishes term-based law commissions to recommend legal reforms, facilitating the rule of law.

Limitations

In Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala, the Supreme Court ruled that an amendment cannot destroy what it seeks to modify; it cannot tinker with the constitution's basic structure or framework, which are immutable. Such an amendment will be declared invalid, although no part of the constitution is protected from amendment; the basic structure doctrine does not protect any one provision of the constitution. According to the doctrine, the constitution's basic features (when 'read as a whole') cannot be abridged or abolished. These 'basic features' have not been fully defined,[50] and whether a particular provision of the constitution is a 'basic feature' is decided by the courts.[58]

The Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala decision laid down the constitution's basic structure:[59]

  1. Supremacy of the constitution
  2. Republican, democratic form of government
  3. Its secular nature
  4. Separation of powers
  5. Its federal character[59]

This implies that Parliament can only amend the constitution to the limit of its basic structure. The Supreme Court or a high court may declare the amendment null and void if this is violated, after a judicial review. This is typical of parliamentary governments, where the judiciary checks parliamentary power.

In its 1967 Golak Nath v. State of Punjab decision, the Supreme Court ruled that the state of Punjab could not restrict any fundamental rights protected by the basic structure doctrine.[60] The extent of land ownership and practice of a profession, in this case, were considered fundamental rights.[61] The ruling was overturned with the ratification of the 24th Amendment in 1971.[61]

Constitution and judiciary

The judiciary is the final arbiter of the constitution.[62] Its duty (mandated by the constitution) is to act as a watchdog, preventing any legislative or executive act from overstepping constitutional bounds.[63] The judiciary protects the fundamental rights of the people (enshrined in the constitution) from infringement by any state body, and balances the conflicting exercise of power between the central government and a state (or states).

The courts are expected to remain unaffected by pressure exerted by other branches of the state, citizens or interest groups. An independent judiciary has been held as a basic feature of the constitution,[64][65] which cannot be changed by the legislature or the executive.[66]

Judicial review

Judicial review was adopted by the constitution of India from judicial review in the United States.[67] In the Indian constitution, judicial review is dealt with in Article 13. The constitution is the supreme power of the nation, and governs all laws. According to Article 13,

  1. All pre-constitutional laws, if they conflict wholly or in part with the constitution, shall have all conflicting provisions deemed ineffective until an amendment to the constitution ends the conflict; the law will again come into force if it is compatible with the constitution as amended (the Doctrine of Eclipse).[68]
  2. Laws made after the adoption of the constitution must be compatible with it, or they will be deemed void ab initio.
  3. In such situations, the Supreme Court (or a high court) determines if a law is in conformity with the constitution. If such an interpretation is not possible because of inconsistency (and where separation is possible), the provision which is inconsistent with the constitution is considered void. In addition to Article 13, Articles 32, 226 and 227 provide the constitutional basis for judicial review.[69]

Due to the adoption of the Thirty-eighth Amendment, the Supreme Court was not allowed to preside over any laws adopted during a state of emergency which infringe fundamental rights under article 32 (the right to constitutional remedies).[70] The Forty-second Amendment widened Article 31C and added Articles 368(4) and 368(5), stating that any law passed by Parliament could not be challenged in court. The Supreme Court ruled in Minerva Mills v. Union of India that judicial review is a basic characteristic of the constitution, overturning Articles 368(4), 368(5) and 31C.[71]

Flexibility

According to Granville Austin, 'The Indian constitution is first and foremost a social document, and is aided by its Parts III & IV (Fundamental Rights & Directive Principles of State Policy, respectively) acting together, as its chief instruments and its conscience, in realising the goals set by it for all the people.'[i][72] The constitution has deliberately been worded in generalities (not in vague terms) to ensure its flexibility.[73]John Marshall, the fourth Chief Justice of the United States, said that a constitution's 'great outlines should be marked, its important objects designated, and the minor ingredients which compose those objects be deduced from the nature of the objects themselves.'[74] A document 'intended to endure for ages to come',[75] it must be interpreted not only based on the intention and understanding of its framers, but in the existing social and political context.

The 'right to life' guaranteed under Article 21[A] has been expanded to include a number of human rights, including the right to a speedy trial,;[3][76] the right to water;[3][77] the right to earn a livelihood,[3] the right to health,[3] and the right to education.[78]

Constitution Of India Pdf

At the conclusion of his book, Making of India's Constitution, retired Supreme Court of India justice Hans Raj Khanna wrote:

If the Indian constitution is our heritage bequeathed to us by our founding fathers, no less are we, the people of India, the trustees and custodians of the values which pulsate within its provisions! A constitution is not a parchment of paper, it is a way of life and has to be lived up to. Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty and in the final analysis, its only keepers are the people.'[79]

Constitution Of India Pdf 2018 In Hindi

— Khanna, Hans Raj (2008). Making of India's constitution (2nd ed.). Lucknow: Eastern Book Co (published 1 January 2008). ISBN978-81-7012-108-4. OCLC294942170.

See also

Notes

  1. ^The Constitution of India was originally written in Hindi and English, so, both Hindi and English are its 'original' languages.
  2. ^ abThe Constitution of Yugoslavia briefly held this position from 1974 until it split up in 1990.
  3. ^Although the last article of the constitution is Article 395, the total number in March 2013 was 465. New articles added through amendments have been inserted in the relevant location of the original constitution. To not disturb the original numbering, new articles are inserted alphanumerically; Article 21A, pertaining to the right to education, was inserted by the 86th Amendment Act.
  4. ^The Constitution was in 22 Parts originally. Part VII & IX (older) was repealed in 1956, whereas newly added Part IVA, IXA, IXB & XIVA by Amendments to the Constitution in different times (lastly added IXB by the 97th Amendment).
  5. ^By 73rd & 74th Amendment, the lists of administrative subjects of Panchayat raj & Municipality included in the Constitution as Schedule 11 & 12 respectively in the year 1993.
  6. ^Scheduled Areas are autonomous areas within a state, administered federally and usually mainly populated by a Scheduled Tribe.
  7. ^Scheduled Tribes are groups of indigenous people, identified in the Constitution, who are struggling socioeconomically
  8. ^Originally Articles mentioned here were immune from judicial review on the ground that they violated fundamental rights. but in a landmark judgement in 2007, the Supreme Court of India held in I.R. Coelho v. State of Tamil Nadu and others that laws included in the 9th schedule can be subject to judicial review if they violated the fundamental rights guaranteed under Article 14, 15, 19, 21 or the basic structure of the Constitution {(ambiguous)} – I.R. Coelho (dead) by L.Rs. v. State of Tamil Nadu and others(2007) 2 S.C.C. 1
  9. ^These lines by Granville Austin from his book The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation at p. 50, have been authoritatively quoted many times

Notes on Article 21

  1. ^Art. 21 – 'No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law'

References

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  2. ^'Preface, The constitution of India'(PDF). Government of India. Retrieved 5 February 2015.
  3. ^ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadKrithika, R. (21 January 2016). 'Celebrate the supreme law'. The Hindu. N. Ram. ISSN0971-751X. OCLC13119119. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  4. ^ abPylee, Moolamattom Varkey (1994). India's Constitution (5th rev. and enl. ed.). New Delhi: R. Chand & Company. p. 3. ISBN978-8121904032. OCLC35022507.
  5. ^ abNix, Elizabeth (9 August 2016). 'Which country has the world's shortest written constitution?'. History. A&E Networks. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  6. ^'The Constitution of India: Role of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar'. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015.
  7. ^'Constitutional supremacy vs parliamentary supremacy'(PDF). Retrieved 12 October 2015.
  8. ^'Introduction to Constitution of India'. Ministry of Law and Justice of India. 29 July 2008. Retrieved 14 October 2008.
  9. ^Swaminathan, Shivprasad (26 January 2013). 'India's benign constitutional revolution'. The Hindu: opinion. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
  10. ^Das, Hari (2002). Political System of India (Reprint ed.). New Delhi: Anmol Publications. p. 120. ISBN978-8174884961.
  11. ^WP(Civil) No. 98/2002 (12 September 2002). 'Aruna Roy & Ors. v. Union of India & Ors'(PDF). Supreme Court of India. p. 18/30. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
  12. ^'Preamble of the Constitution of India'(PDF). Ministry of Law & Justice. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
  13. ^ abcdefghijklmnopqrDhavan, Rajeev (26 November 2015). 'Document for all ages: Why Constitution is our greatest achievement'. Hindustan Times. OCLC231696742. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  14. ^Menon, V.P. (15 September 1955). The story fo the integration of the India states. Bangalore: Longman Greens and Co. access-date= requires url= (help)
  15. ^'Commencement'.
  16. ^ abcdefghijklmnYellosa, Jetling (26 November 2015). 'Making of Indian Constitution'. The Hans India. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  17. ^ abcd'The Constituent Assembly Debates (Proceedings):(9th December,1946 to 24 January 1950)'. The Parliament of India Archive. Retrieved 22 February 2008.
  18. ^Laxmikanth, M. 'INDIAN POLITY'. McGraw-Hill Education. Retrieved 6 April 2019 – via Google Books.
  19. ^DelhiNovember 26, India Today Web Desk New; November 26, 2018UPDATED:; Ist, 2018 15:31. 'Constitution Day: A look at Dr BR Ambedkar's contribution towards Indian Constitution'. India Today. Retrieved 6 April 2019.
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  22. ^ abPatnaik, Biswaraj (26 January 2017). 'BN Rau: The Forgotten Architect of Indian Constitution'. The Pioneer. Bhubaneswar: Chandan Mitra. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
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  28. ^PM Modi greets people on Constitution Day, DNA India, 26 November 2015.
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  32. ^Bahl, Raghav (27 November 2015). 'How India Borrowed From the US Constitution to Draft its Own'. The Quint. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
  33. ^Sridhar, Madabhushi. 'Evolution and Philosophy behind the Indian Constitution (page 22)'(PDF). Dr.Marri Channa Reddy Human Resource Development Institute (Institute of Administration), Hyderabad. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
  34. ^Lockette, Tim (18 November 2012). 'Is the Alabama Constitution the longest constitution in the world?Truth Rating: 4 out of 5'. The Anniston Star. Josephine Ayers. Retrieved 24 July 2018.
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  36. ^'NOTIFICATION'(PDF). egazette.nic.in. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
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  38. ^Chishti, Seema; Anand, Utkarsh (30 January 2015). 'Legal experts say debating Preamble of Constitution pointless, needless'. The Indian Express. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
  39. ^'Forty-Second Amendment to the Constitution'. Ministry of Law and Justice of India. 28 August 1976. Retrieved 14 October 2008.
  40. ^Part I
  41. ^Part II
  42. ^Part IV
  43. ^Part V
  44. ^Part VI
  45. ^Part VII
  46. ^Part VIII
  47. ^Part IX
  48. ^Part IXA
  49. ^http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend97.pdf
  50. ^ abMenon, N.R. Madhava (26 September 2004). 'Parliament and the Judiciary'. The Hindu. Retrieved 21 November 2015.
  51. ^M Laxmikanth. '3'. Indian Polity (4th ed.). McGraw Hill Education. p. 3.2. ISBN978-1-25-906412-8.
  52. ^Krishnakumar, R. ''Article 356 should be abolished''. Frontline (Vol. 15 :: No. 14 :: 4–17 July 1998). Retrieved 9 November 2015.
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  54. ^Swami, Praveen. 'Protecting secularism and federal fair play'. Frontline (Vol. 14 :: No. 22 :: 1–14 Nov. 1997). Retrieved 9 November 2015.
  55. ^ ab'Pages 311 & 312 of original judgement: A. K. Roy, Etc vs Union Of India And Anr on 28 December, 1981'. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
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  69. ^Lectures By Professor Parmanad Singh, Jindal Global Law School.
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  79. ^Khanna, Hans Raj (2008). Making of India's constitution (2nd ed.). Lucknow: Eastern Book Co (published 1 January 2008). ISBN978-81-7012-108-4. OCLC294942170.

Bibliography

  • Khanna, Justice H.R (2015). Making of India's Constitution (2nd Edition 2008, (Reprinted 2015) ed.). Eastern Book Company. ISBN978-81-7012-188-6.
  • Austin, Granville (1999). The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN978-01-9564-959-8.
  • Austin, Granville (2003). Working a Democratic Constitution: A History of the Indian Experience (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN978-01-9565-610-7.
  • Baruah, Aparajita (2007). Preamble of the Constitution of India : An Insight & Comparison. Eastern Book Co. ISBN978-81-7629-996-1.
  • Basu, Durga Das (1965). Commentary on the constitution of India : (being a comparative treatise on the universal principles of justice and constitutional government with special reference to the organic instrument of India). 1–2. S. C. Sarkar & Sons (Private) Ltd.
  • Basu, Durga Das (1984). Introduction to the Constitution of India (10th ed.). South Asia Books. ISBN0-8364-1097-1.
  • Basu, Durga Das (1981). Shorter Constitution of India. Prentice-Hall of India. ISBN978-0-87692-200-2.
  • Das, Hari Hara (2002). Political System of India. Anmol Publications. ISBN81-7488-690-7.
  • Dash, Shreeram Chandra (1968). The Constitution of India; a Comparative Study. Chaitanya Pub. House.
  • Dhamija, Dr. Ashok (2007). Need to Amend a Constitution and Doctrine of Basic Features. Wadhwa and Company. ISBN9788180382536.
  • Ghosh, Pratap Kumar (1966). The Constitution of India: How it Has Been Framed. World Press.
  • Jayapalan, N. (1998). Constitutional History of India. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. ISBN81-7156-761-4.
  • Khanna, Hans Raj (1981). Making of India's Constitution. Eastern Book Co. ISBN978-81-7012-108-4.
  • Rahulrai, Durga Das (1984). Introduction to the Constitution of India (10th ed.). South Asia Books. ISBN0-8364-1097-1.
  • Pylee, M.V. (1997). India's Constitution. S. Chand & Co. ISBN81-219-0403-X.
  • Pylee, M.V. (2004). Constitutional Government in India. S. Chand & Co. ISBN81-219-2203-8.
  • Sen, Sarbani (2007). The Constitution of India: Popular Sovereignty and Democratic Transformations. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-568649-4.
  • Sharma, Dinesh; Singh, Jaya; Maganathan, R.; et al. (2002). Indian Constitution at Work. Political Science, Class XI. NCERT.
  • 'The Constituent Assembly Debates (Proceedings):(9th December,1946 to 24 January 1950)'. The Parliament of India Archive. Retrieved 22 February 2008.
Constitution Of India Pdf

External links

  • 'Constitution of India'. Commonwealth Legal Information Institute. – online copy

Constitution Of India Pdf

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